Introduction

Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, was born in AD570, the posthumous son of a Hashemite from Mecca (Makkah). His mother died when he was about six and he was brought up by his grandfather, who had him set up as a merchant by the time he was 25. His teachings began around 612, but despite gaining some followers he was rejected by the townsmen and was forced to leave for Medina (Madinah) in 622. For the next decade he organised the Islamic Community, creating a community based on the will of God. His activities led to the persecution of the early Muslims, followed by years of conflict, mainly with the Meccans, as the number of Muslims increased. By his death in 632, many Arabian tribes had either joined or been subdued by the Muslims.

Within a year of the Prophet's death, the Muslims had advanced into Iraq, and by the early years of the following century had reached the River Indus and the Pyrénées. In the context of this remarkable expansion, the victory of Charles Martel at Tours (732) must rank as one of the most decisive in history. Most of the countries which were conquered during this period still remain Islamic or else have large Muslim populations.

The history of Islam and its influence on Christian Europe, with which it coexisted uneasily for centuries, repays careful study. Certain European countries, notably Spain, Portugal and Sicily, have fascinating reminders of both cultures; it is also worth remembering that during the Middle Ages the Islamic world was far advanced compared with those of the West in the fields of philosophy, medicine, science, geography, poetry and music. Many classical works only survived because they were translated into Arabic during the so-called 'Dark Ages' before being brought to Western Europe in the 12th century; the rediscovery of the works of Aristotle in this way was of fundamental importance to the development of Western philosophy. During the Crusades (1100-1290), armies of Christian Europe and Islam came into violent conflict, and there is little doubt that it was the Muslims who in general displayed greater tolerance and humanity. In recent years an understanding of Islam has often been obscured by political complexities, and the following section is an attempt to explain some of the important tenets of the faith. Anyone planning to visit a Muslim country should familiarise themselves with at least a little of the history, culture and beliefs of this increasingly influential religion.

Islam

The Islamic religion is based on the 'submission to the will of God (Allah)'. Islam has teachings for the mind, body and spirit; also laws on education, economy, politics, science, crimes and punishment, human behaviour and all aspects of morality in daily life for individuals (men and women of any race), families, governments and whole societies anywhere in the world.


The Quran/Koran and Sunnah are the two basic sources of Islamic teachings, law and order. The Quran is the main religious book for Muslims; it is the spoken word of Allah(God) and is subdivided into 30 equal parts containing 114 chapters (or Sura) in Arabic. The Sunnah is complementary to the Quran and contains the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad and his way of life.

The Prophet received the spoken word of Allah containing the foundation of the faith (the Quran/Koran) while in Mecca in the 7th century AD. The city is now Islam's principal holy city. Medina, also in Saudi Arabia, a little over 300km (200 miles) due north of Mecca, is second only to Mecca in importance. It was to Medina that Muhammad and his followers moved after his monotheistic beliefs were given a hostile reception by some Meccans. The journey from Mecca to Medina (Hijra) is celebrated each year, the event being taken as the starting point of the Islamic calendar (Ah 1). Prior to their return to Mecca the Prophet and his followers made a pilgrimage (Hajj) to the Holy City during the month of Ramadan. After Muhammad's death in AD632 temporal authority was assumed by a series of Khalifahs, with various sects developing. Today the strongest sects within Islam (that is those with the most followers) are the Sunni (in Indonesia, India, Malaysia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Syria, parts of Lebanon, Egypt, north Africa, Saudi Arabia, the Gulf States and large parts of Turkey) and the Shia (in Iran, southern Lebanon, parts of India, Afghanistan and Pakistan and the greater part of Iraq).

The Five Pillars of Islam

There are five basic religious tenets, generally called the Five Pillars of
Islam:

Shahadah

The profession of faith: 'I testify there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.'


Salah- The faithful must turn towards Mecca and recite a prescribed prayer five times daily at dawn, just after midday, asr (mid afternoon), just after sunset and before midnight. In some Muslim countries the activities of the day stop at the time of prayer. The muezzin calls to prayer, chanting from the minaret of each mosque. For obvious practical reasons, not all Muslims go to a mosque for prayer. Shopkeepers and businessmen will offer prayers on their premises, usually on a mat set to one side. Non-Muslims should not be embarrassed if they happen to witness this.

The most important prayer is the Friday prayer, delivered from a pulpit of the mosque by a prayer leader. In many Muslim countries, Friday is a holiday, with banks and shops closed all day.

Zakah

A compulsory payment from a Muslim's annual savings. It literally means 'purification', and is an annual payment of 2.5% of the value of cash, jewellery and precious metals above a specified minimum amount (a separate rate applies to animals, crops and minerals). Zakah can only be used for helping the poor and needy, the disabled, the oppressed, debtors and other welfare purposes defined in the Qur'an and Sunnah.

Ramadan

All Muslims are required to fast during the Holy Month of Ramadan (a lunar month of 29 or 30 days, which falls 11 days earlier each year, depending on sightings of the moon). All Muslims abstain totally from food, drink, sex and tobacco from dawn to sunset. Non-Muslims should respect this practice and wherever possible avoid infringing these laws in front of Muslims, since this would be considered an insult. Practically speaking, when Ramadan falls during the summer months, the abstentions become a test of endurance. Often shops and restaurants will open much earlier and close during the afternoons and in smaller towns some will close altogether, but some businesses do open at night. Straight after sunset most, if not all, Muslims will break their fast, and little business or travel will be practical for the visitor at this time.


Originally the festival celebrated the month during which the Quran was first revealed and later when Muhammad's followers won a great victory over opponents to his faith in Mecca. Eid al-Fitr, an official holiday in some Muslim countries of three or more days, takes place after the end of Ramadan. It is a celebratory feast when those luxuries which have been denied are enjoyed with relish.

The Hajj

The pilgrimage to Mecca. Every Muslim who can afford it and is fit enough must make the journey. Some Muslims, especially those in Saudi Arabia, make the pilgrimage more than once. At the time of the pilgrimage, the pilgrim (Hajji/Hajja) enters the holy precincts of Mecca wearing a white, seamless garment (ihram) and performs the sevenfold circumambulation of the Kaabah (the black stone housed in the centre of the Holy Mosque) and the sevenfold course between the little hills of Safa and Marwah near Mecca. Muslims perform this in memory of Haggar who is mentioned in the Old Testament, who ran seven times between Safa and Marwah seeking a spring for her thirsty son. The Hajj lasts from the seventh to the eighth day of Dhu-al-Hijja. On the ninth day pilgrims stand praying on the mountain Arafat - an essential part of the ritual of the Hajj. The pilgrimage formally ends with Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice), which is an official holiday of four or more days, in which a camel, sheep or horned domestic animal is sacrificed on the tenth day of Dhu-al-Hijja. After shaving the head (which is performed only by men), the ihram is discarded and normal dress (ihlal) resumed. As long as the hajji/hajja is in a muhrim (sanctified place) he/she must refrain from sexual intercourse, the shedding of blood, hunting and the uprooting of plants. All of the different activities of the Hajj are symbolic and have stories associated with them.

Social Customs

Muslims regard Islam as an integral part of daily life, resulting in an ordered society in which a person's social, spiritual and economic status is clearly defined. This way of life is for the most part drawn from the Quran. Greetings and replies in particular are formal and stylised. Manners and courtesy reflect a deeply-held convention of hospitality and mutual respect. It is customary for Muslim households to extend hospitality to people whom Western society would disregard socially. For instance, tradition dictates that anyone who appears at meal times must be invited to share the meal, and this would apply as much to strangers or tradesmen, whatever the reason for their call, as it would to friends or relatives. Hospitality was a part of Arab culture before Islam and the laws and teaching of Islam reinforced it. Subjects such as illness or death are not surrounded by taboo as they are in many Western societies, and are discussed with frankness by all. Muslims are encouraged to have close relationships and keep an open heart, an understanding of others and to try and help with their problems.

The label of a family can cover any number of individuals rather than just those related by blood ties. Arab families are close-knit, and the importance of family unity cannot be stressed too strongly. Inter-family disputes are a cause for public shame and require immediate attention.

Women and Islam

Probably the aspect of Islam which non-Muslims find most difficult to accept is the treatment of women, and it is the aspect most deeply criticised. The demand that men and women should dress and behave modestly is seen by Muslims as symbolic of the importance and value placed on women as mothers and guardians of the family. The Prophet encouraged monogamy although polygamy was allowed, provided that the husband was in a position to provide for all wives (a maximum of four is allowed) and treated them equally. Polygamy may also occur in special circumstances, such as when the number of women in society is larger than the number of men, or when the wife is chronically ill or sterile. Today monogamy is more common, polygamy being allowed but not encouraged. Many, but not all, royal families have employed polygamy to ensure succession, and for practical reasons such as providing ministers and administrators, but otherwise it is not the norm.


The theory behind modest dress and veil for women is to preserve respect, dignity and virginity and safeguard them from interference or abuse by men, although for some time this tradition has been slowly relaxed in many countries through contact with non-Islamic cultures. Other traditions, however, such as arranged marriages or the seating of females upstairs or at a separate table in a restaurant, are still rigidly observed. Many of the public traditions serve to distinguish male dominance in society. Women are allowed to work in some cases, especially when the need arises, but the Islamic code of dress and modesty must always be observed. In some jobs it is obligatory to have female teachers or doctors, for example when dealing with Muslim girls or women. Today in the Arab and Muslim world, many Muslim women are working because of financial need and because of the liberalising of religious practice or observance. Women invariably rule the household and the family. Given the importance of the family, this affords the older women considerable influence. Younger women, however, hold no such position and although many Islamic countries have relaxed restrictions and women have begun to play an active part in many spheres of activity (particularly in medicine, education, public services and the media), a number of countries still follow traditional practices.


The difference between the measure of adherence to Quranic practices of one country and another is most easily judged by the degree of freedom afforded to women. Fundamentalism, enjoying a resurgence in many Islamic countries, is as much as anything else an articulation of the resentment felt at the interference of stronger foreign economies in their internal affairs. However, this can often manifest itself in a retreat back to almost medieval traditions as a positive form of disapproval of the decadence of the West. Thus, in many countries the position of women can be protected and their role in society appreciated, whilst at the same time their ability to control their own lives is largely denied.


Note:The above account of women and Islam, which describes widely held beliefs and customs, should not be taken as authoritative. Women in Islam, published by the Islamic Foundation, gives an account of one of the sessions of the International Islamic Conference held in London in 1976. The session was addressed by two Islamic women with a Western background and followed by a discussion. Women in Islam looks at issues more deeply and is a useful starting point for those who wish to learn about issues alive in Islam today.

Social Conventions

Forms of address

The Arabic equivalent of 'Mr' is Sayyid(for Muslims) and Khawaja (for Christians), while married women should be addressed as Sayyida or Sitt, and girls as Anissa. In Islam it is also encouraged to call a Muslim man 'my brother' and a Muslim woman 'my sister'. Islam regards men as equal, but social conventions, hospitality and politeness of Islamic societies prevent overfamiliarity.

Greeting

There follows a short list of Arabic greetings and phrases. The transliterations are phonetic and intended to assist pronunciation.


Marharba - Hello;


Markhabtain - Hello (reply);


Ma'a Salama - Goodbye;


Ahlan wa sahlan - Welcome;

Ahlan feekum - Welcome (reply);


Sabah al-khir - Good morning;


Sabah innoor - Good morning (reply).


These were all originally purely Arabic greetings. In Islam the common greeting still widely used is Assalmu Alaykum ('Peace be with you').

Note: Throughout the Arab world English is widely spoken in business, and it is not essential for English-speakers to learn Arabic. However, attempts to say even a few words and phrases in Arabic are generally very much appreciated.

Business

This must always be conducted on a personal introduction or invitation basis only. Without invitations or introductions a business visit, while being courteously received, will ultimately amount to nothing. Honesty is the basis of all business dealings in Islamic countries and a word is a bond. Arguing and haggling over prices is the norm and an Arabic tradition of buying and selling. Once a bargain has been struck the deal cannot be renegotiated or cancelled unless either party cannot raise the money.

Clothing conventions

These are derived in part from religious beliefs and in part from climatic necessity. Western business suits are only practical during the summer if they are lightweight. Businessmen will be accepted if they wear open-necked shirts, as long as they are well turned out. Women are advised not to wear revealing clothes as this will attract unwelcome attention or ridicule at best, and resentment and hostility at worst. Women should also cover their heads when entering a Mosque. Muslim women are generally advised to show face and hands only.

Do not sit in a position which places the soles of the feet towards anyone, as this is considered a deliberate insult. Shoes should be removed upon entering a Mosque or a house.

Sexual politics

Remember the position that women hold in Islam (see above), and that some gestures considered normal by westerners can be interpreted as serious insults. Divorce and marriage are considered civil matters and while divorce is not a common practice it is relatively easy. Adultery is considered an insult to Allah and society and severely punished, often by flogging, but sometimes by stoning to death.

Giving and receiving

Always use the right hand. To offer gifts with the left hand is considered an insult.

Drug use

Although many countries cultivate hashish or marijuana, it is not culturally acceptable and in the majority of countries the possession, use or trading of drugs is severely punished. Drug abuse is not permitted in Islam, particularly hard drugs such as heroin, morphine or cocaine, but also any drug which interferes with the consciousness, reasoning or judgement, affecting work, study or family life.

Alcohol

The consumption of alcohol is forbidden by law. Many non-practising Muslims will, however, drink alcohol and will offer drinks to guests when outside their own country. Most Islamic countries (with the exception of Libya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait) permit the sale and consumption of alcohol by non-Muslims. Generally the sale of alcohol will be confined to international hotels, but visitors may in some cases buy alcohol from wholesalers with a permit from their company or local Embassy. Bars are usually closed during Ramadan. Never drink alcohol while eating. Drunkenness is considered disgraceful, and the visitor is advised to never consume more than he or she can gracefully
manage.

Gambling

This is considered by most Islamic countries to be an evil, and is strictly outlawed.

Smoking

This is also discouraged in Islam because of the health hazards associated with it. However, do not refuse a cigarette unless you are an ardent non-smoker, as an offer of a cigarette is often a compliment, especially from one's host. If invited to smoke a narghileh (hookah) do not refuse and follow the ritual behaviour exhibited. This essentially social activity is popular in some, but by no means all, Arab countries.

Food:

Pork is forbidden by Islamic law and all meat is killed by cutting the animal's throat and draining the blood. This is called halal meat. It is customary for the host/hostess to cut up whole items of food (especially with mezzeh, the Arabic equivalent of hors d'oeuvres) and distribute them. It is also customary to offer guests the most succulent parts of the meal, often the entrails or eyes. To refuse these is considered an insult. In restaurants the person who makes the invitation pays the bill and it is considered an insult to contravene.

Note

Etiquette in all Islamic countries is complicated and highly evolved, and all those wishing to learn more are advised to read books on the subject.

The Islamic Calendar

Based on lunar months, ie the first of each month coincides with the date of the actual New Moon. In 'Common' years of 354 days, the months are alternately 30 and 29 days long; in the 'Kabishah' year of 355 days the last month has 30 days. During a 30-year period there are 19 Common and 11 Kabishah years. The ninth month is Ramadan. The Islamic months are as follows:


Muharram, Safar, Rabi (1), Rabi (2), Jumada (1), Jumada (2), Rajab, Sha'ban, Ramadan, Shawwal, Dhu al-Qa'da, Dhu al-Hijja.


These months are used especially in Saudi Arabia.

For further information contact

Muslim Information Services, 233 Seven Sisters Road, London N4 2DA. Tel: (020) 7272 5170. Fax: (020) 7272 3214.orThe Muslim Educational Trust, 130 Stroud Green Road, London N4 3RZ. Tel: (020) 7272 8502. Fax: (020) 7281 3457.