Belief
The Bible consists of the Old Testament inherited from Judaism and the New Testament which tells the story of Jesus and his apostles, and also contains letters written to Christian communities, especially those by St Paul. Discussion of the Old Testament and St Paul's letters is omitted in the following for reasons of space.
The New Testament Story
The Christian belief is based on the life and teachings of Jesus who, as recorded in the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, travelled through Palestine for three years declaring his message and performing miracles until he was arrested, accused of being a rebel against the occupying Roman authorities and crucified. The Jewish authorities were particularly upset by his claim to be the son of God, and therefore the long-awaited Messiah. According to believers, three days after his crucifixion Jesus rose from the dead and for the next few weeks appeared several times to his followers. He then 'ascended' to heaven.
Subsequent to his death, resurrection and Ascension his apostles (see below) and other disciples travelled through the Roman Empire preaching and gaining converts. Of these converts St Paul, who was in the first place fanatically anti-Christian, is perhaps the most important; many Christian doctrines are based on his letters to the various Christian communities.
The Miracles
In the gospels, Jesus is often portrayed as reluctant to perform miracles, performing them only out of compassion, with a reminder that people should not believe in him for his miracles. The miracles most often mentioned involve making the lame walk and the blind see, from others he 'casts out devils' (a phrase now given a psychological slant by many). A few seem to have a mystical or symbolic significance: turning the water to wine at the wedding in Cana, the feeding of the five thousand (with two loaves and three fishes) and calming the storm on Lake Galilee seem to fall into this category.
The Parables
The miracles are often a prelude to a discussion in which a parable, or maybe several, are told. Jesus is not primarily someone who lays down moral laws; it is the attitude and approach to life of his listeners that he targets. Taken collectively the parables form a set of yardsticks against which the Christian can measure himself. As they are stories, rather than codes of behaviour, their origin many years ago in a largely pastoral and Roman-occupied Middle East does not confine and date them. Phrases from the parables occur naturally in conversations of those who live in societies moulded by Christianity (no matter how secular they have become). A 'Good Samaritan' is a person who helps a stranger in need; a 'Prodigal Son' is one who is wayward; 'to sort out the sheep from the goats' is to separate the good from the bad; 'to turn the other cheek' is to withhold retaliation. There are many other examples. The parables emphasise ethical precepts central to Christianity: returning good for evil, forgiveness, welcoming the sinner and valuing a person forwhathe is, not forwhohe is. The most direct statements of Christian ethics in the Bible are perhaps to be found in the Beatitudes, the most famous being 'Blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the Earth'.
The Apostles
The 12 apostles were disciples who were particularly close to Jesus; several were fishermen. Notable among the apostles was Peter (meaning 'stone'), who through force of character, or perhaps conviction, was able to overcome his weaknesses. Another apostle, Matthew, symbolises the universal nature of the Christian appeal; he had been a tax-collector (a universally corrupt and despised profession in the Roman Empire). Most notorious was Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus to the authorities; down the centuries his actions, and those of the priests he assisted, have been used as a justification for persecution of the Jewish people throughout the centuries.
The Gospels & Apostles
John's Gospel is accepted as being the closest eye-witness account. The visionary nature of his work, however, inclines many interpreters against being over-literal. The other Gospels are called collectively the 'synoptic' Gospels; though there are differences between them, they draw on the same source material. Mark's, the earliest, is a bald 'no frills' narrative; the aim is clearly to bring the material together and put it in writing. Matthew's is written from a Jewish perspective and has a clear emphasis on putting the story into the context of Jewish tradition. Luke, on the other hand, as a gentile convert, emphasises the universal elements of the story. From Luke also comes the Acts of the Apostles, an account of the early days of Christianity, which significantly gives us a picture of the second major progenitor of Christianity: St Paul.
Practices
Whilst Christian denominations vary radically in their practices, virtually all perform the Act of Holy Communion (see below) and hold services on Sunday (the day of the Resurrection, traditionally the Christian day of rest), though such activities are not necessarily confined to Sunday. A prayer ('grace') is often said at table before meals, especially the evening meal. It may be read or memorised and may also give mention to preoccupations or current events. It is customary for persons in attendance to lower their eyes, bow their head and clasp their hands in front of them or hold the hand of the persons sitting next to them. The prayer always finishes with the word 'Amen' (meaning 'So be it'), at which time those attending can resume their normal posture and begin their meal. It is a breach of manners to begin eating before the prayer is completed.
In general, practising Christians are definably members of a community centred on their church; originally the act of baptism symbolised the acceptance of a Christian as a full member, but it is now performed at so young an age (in most denominations) that there is usually some other recognised form of acceptance, which occurs when a person is old enough to take responsibility for his actions. The nature of this form of acceptance varies greatly, but what is centrally important, and sets Christianity apart, is that individuals are offered the choice of whether or not to accept it.
Communion
At the Last Supper, when Jesus celebrated the Jewish Passover immediately before being taken prisoner and crucified, he broke bread and drank wine with his apostles, saying: "Do this in remembrance of me". This has become the Christian sacrament of Communion when by re-enacting this event Christians renew their ties with God. There is no particular time or place for this sacrament, though over the centuries many rites and practices have grown around it, mostly perhaps in the Roman Catholic Mass.
The Christian Calendar
The most important event in the Christian calendar is Easter, which celebrates the death and resurrection of Jesus: Good Friday, the day when hope was lost; Easter Sunday, the day it was restored. Very much second in importance is Christmas, which celebrates the Birth of Jesus. The Christmas tradition of exchanging gifts and family celebration is very much a secular affair and not rooted in any Christian doctrine. The older European tradition is to celebrate on St Nicholas' Day (December 6) whilst other churches prefer to commemorate the arrival of the Magi with their gifts. Many other events in the life of Jesus are celebrated in the Christian calendar. The most important dates are as follows:
Christmas(generally: December 25; Orthodox: variable)-Celebrates
the Birth of Jesus. See above.
Epiphany(January 6, 12 days after Christmas)- The coming of the wise men with their gifts.
Ash Wednesday (46 days before Easter)-Commencement of Lent, traditionally a period of
fasting and self-denial leading up to Easter.
Palm Sunday (a week before Easter)- Celebrates the
arrival into Jerusalem of Jesus riding on a mule.
Good Friday (two days before Easter)- Traditionally
referred to as three days before Easter Sunday, this commemorates the
crucifixion.
EasterSunday(*)- The day of the Resurrection. See above.
Note *:This is a moveable Feast which usually
occurs in March or April. Western and Orthodox churches determine its date
according to different calendars.
Ascension Day (39 days after Easter)- The day Jesus
ascended to heaven on a cloud following his resurrection and last appearances on
Earth.
Whit Sunday (seven weeks after Easter)-Marking the day the Holy Spirit entered the disciples
left behind and the beginning of their ministry.
The above dates are marked by virtually all Christian churches; Orthodox and Catholic churches, in particular, mark other occasions such as Noah's Flood (Orthodox) and the Immaculate Conception (Roman Catholic).
Doctrines
Only the foolhardy could set out a list of Christian doctrines; the following beliefs are held, with differing degrees of literalness, by most Christians:
(1) There is only one God.
(2) Jesus is his son.
(3) He was born of the Virgin Mary.
(4) He lived, was crucified, resurrected from the dead and ascended to heaven (the meaning of this is explained separately, see below).
(5) Through the working of the Holy Spirit his apostles were moved to preach in the name of Jesus, and establish the church as we know it.
(6) God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit are not three entities but one and the same (the complex doctrine of the Trinity).
(7) The Bible, including the Jewish Old Testament seen in the light of the New Testament, represents the word of God to his people.
(8) God remains today in commune with his church and its members.
There is a broad range of attitudes to these beliefs, from the Roman Catholics' insistence on orthodoxy to the Quakers' belief in the 'still, small voice'.
The Significance of the Resurrection
To Christians, the significance of the Resurrection is essentially about personal and collective redemption through the self sacrifice of one man. According to the New Testament, the story of Jesus is the story of a man who preached an emphasis on the importance of spiritual guiding values as opposed to the primacy of tradition or law defined by man. According to the Gospels he was angered by hypocrisy, relished debate, spoke of forgiveness and returning love for hate and, having spoken of these things, was betrayed and abandoned by those closest to him. In the Resurrection Jesus joins humanity again, but this time with his divinity in the ascendant. For a Christian, the belief in the resurrection of Christ is the belief in the potential redemption of both the individual and the redemption of mankind as a whole.
Denominations
The following is a list of some of the main Christian denominations worldwide, together with a brief description of their particular customs.
Roman Catholic (Worldwide, especially in Latin countries & Europe):
Roman Catholics believe that the Pope inherits supreme authority within the church directly from St Peter. Elaborate rituals are performed and the role of the priest is central; it is his responsibility to listen toConfession,assign penances and give absolution (forgiveness). Many saints are venerated and countries with the Roman Catholic denomination are often noted for their fiestas on Saints' Days; spectacular carnivals before or after Easter also occur. Modesty in dress when visiting churches is required (eg covering the head for women).
Orthodox (Russia, Middle East & Central Europe)
Orthodox churches are similar to Catholic ones in the elaborate style of their liturgies and rituals (called 'Greek Rite'). Services are long with the congregation standing throughout; stress is laid on the importance of the Ascension and saints are highly regarded. In some places, icons (usually miniature religious paintings on small pieces of wood) are used as an aid to contemplation. Eachprovincehas its own Patriarch and, whilst there is no overriding central control, the Patriarch of Istanbul is recognised as the most senior. Modesty in dress when visiting churches is required (eg covering the head for women).
Anglican & Episcopalian (English-speaking countries)
The Church of England parted from the Roman Catholic church in the 16th century. Many of its rites are similar to those of the Catholic church, although over the centuries the influences of Puritanism and non-conformity have, for the most part, tended to concentrate worship on the main doctrines and away from the veneration of saints etc. The priest is also less of an intermediary between his congregation and God. Anglican and Episcopalian churches throughout the world have forms of service derived from that of the Church of England. The church is broad and 'high' churches tend to be similar in character to Roman Catholicism, whilst 'low' churches look more to non-conformist influences. Requirements on dress are not as strict as those of Catholic and Orthodox churches, but respect is always appreciated.
Methodist, Presbyterian & Congregationalist (English-speaking countries & the Pacific)
Industriousness, temperance (meaning more than just sobriety), straightforwardness and honesty are the values of these churches; qualities which the New Testament sums up in the concept of 'stewardship'. In form of service, some are similar to the 'low' church of the Church of England whilst others are more austere and Calvinistic (putting emphasis on the relationship man-God, strongly opposing the role of priest as mediator).
Baptist (CIS, Europe, USA & parts of the East Asia)
Most churches practise baptism within a few weeks of birth. For Baptists the consent of the baptised is essential if the rite is to be significant and adult, or 'believer's baptism', is practised. Congregations are autonomous and independent of each other though each belongs to a national union. Other beliefs are similar to those described above underMethodist etc.
Pentecostal (Caribbean & USA)
These are the most exuberant churches of all, with much community singing and uninhibited celebration; 'speaking in tongues' and dancing often enter into church services. Beliefs are usually Fundamentalist.
Seventh Day Adventist (USA & the Pacific)
This Fundamentalist church celebrates the Sabbath on Saturday (the 'seventh day'). Church members look forward to the 'Second Coming' when Jesus will return to Earth and there is a heavy emphasis on the Old Testament.
Evangelical
Many churches have evangelical congregations and this is an area in which the Pentecostal church has been influential. The importance of proclaiming God's word is emphasised.
The Growth of Christianity
The history of Christianity is central to the history of the modern world and pervades every aspect of philosophy, politics and culture, certainly in Europe. Space here does not permit more than a brief survey and it should be remembered that although originally a Middle Eastern religion, it was in Europe that Christianity most firmly took root and survived. The following survey has been written largely from a Western European viewpoint; this is not to belittle the achievements of the many founding fathers of the Church, many of whom lived in Syria and north Africa.
The early church, initially small groups converted by the remaining apostles and St Paul, grew rapidly in the Roman Empire but suffered considerable persecution and also many heresies and schisms. The remarkable spread of the religion culminated in the reign of the Emperor Constantine (306-337), who became a Christian himself and summoned the first Ecumenical council of the Church (325) in an attempt to settle the matter of the Arian heresy, the first sign of a split between the eastern and western churches which was never subsequently healed. The church was at this time organised under the leadership of several patriachs (at Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and Rome), with the latter accorded a somewhat vague primacy. Christianity spread rapidly throughout Europe during the so-called Dark Ages (although parts of Eastern and northeastern Europe were not converted until the 11th/12th centuries), a growth mirroring the breakdown of secular power. The propensity of Christianity to produce schismatic groups in no way abated during this period and led to the establishment of many diverse Christian groups, such as the Coptics and Maronites, which still survive to this day. The rapid and dramatic spread of Islam in the 7th century resulted in many Christian lands (such as Spain and almost all of the Middle East) being over-run; the conquest of Jerusalem was particularly keenly felt, the city being revered by Christians, as well as by Muslims and Jews. The career of Charlemagne (771-814) produced a revival both of Christianity and of secular power, and his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor in Rome on Christmas Day 800 - thus recreating the Roman Empire in the West and formalising the concept of Christendom - was an event of enormous significance, not least because it brought into sharp focus the conflicting aspirations of Church and State. It was widely believed that Constantine had granted the Church ultimate supremacy in earthly affairs (the so-called 'Donation of Constantine', later proved to be a forgery), and this dispute rumbled on throughout the Middle Ages, often flaring into armed conflict. The launching of the Crusades in 1096 was motivated not only by a desire to reinforce ecclesiastical supremacy in the West, but also to come to the aid of the Byzantine Empire which had come consistently under attack. There existed also the fainter hope of producing a reconciliation between Rome and Constantinople. The astounding success of the First Crusade, which led to the establishment of Christian states in the Middle East for almost 200 years, brought Christianity, Judaism and Islam into sharp and violent conflict. The triumph of Islam in the East was assured after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453; the Eastern (Orthodox) church retained its hold in Greece and Russia, and also in many isolated (and often heretical) communities in the Middle East. Shortly afterwards the 'seamless robe of Christ' was split still further by the Reformation and the teachings of Luther, Calvin and Zwingli. By the end of the 16th century, despite the work of the Counter-Reformation and the Council of Trent, much of northern Europe had turned to Protestantism. Increasingly, the religious split in Europe manifested itself in many of the wars of the period - the French Wars of Religion, the Dutch War of Independence and the English Civil War and Revolution, for instance - culminating in the gruesome politico-religious violence of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). By this time most of the major European powers had started to establish overseas empires, exporting religion at the same time, and by the 18th century Christianity had established itself as the most widely spread faith in the world. Methodism was the last of the major Christian denominations to take root, and by that time most of the established churches in Europe had achieved a more tranquilmodus vivendiwith their secular counterparts by the rationalism of the Enlightenment. From this time on the most zealous Christians, from the Jesuits to Evangelicals, were finding that the most fertile ground for their teaching lay in the colonies: during the 19th century the work of conversion in all parts of the world proceeded apace. The 20th century has seen the Christian Church in Europe holding an increasingly small constituency and relying more on moral and ethical, rather than theological, influence on the life of its adherents. Certainly the increasing power and sophistication of the state has, in our century, resolved the ancient Church and State dispute very firmly in favour of the secular arm. The foundation of the ecumenical World Council of Churches in 1948 can be seen partly as an attempt to bury old differences between the denominations. Despite the increasing drift away from religion in the West, revivals, often of a dramatic nature, have taken place throughout the century, and one should in particular cite the recent rise of fundamentalist preachers in the USA. Two other events are worthy of particular mention. Firstly, the work of the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s, an attempt to bring the Catholic Church in line with the needs of the modern world: it has been said that, convened 500 years earlier, it would certainly have prevented the Reformation. Secondly, the spread of the so-called 'Liberation theology' in the Third World and Eastern Europe, born of an attempt to use the moral authority and teachings of the Church to aid the struggle against political and social oppression. Although in many ways a return to the fundamental teaching of Christ, the development is viewed with alarm by the Vatican and, to a lesser extent, by other Church leaders. The legacy of Christianity to the world is incalculable: almost every work of literature, art and music before about 1600 - and many after this date - were inspired by the faith, while the soaring cathedrals of both Western and Eastern Europe rank among the greatest achievements of mankind. Certainly the religion will continue to guide, comfort and inspire countless millions across the globe, although it seems unlikely to spawn any further major global changes.
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Christian Enquiry Agency,
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London,
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(tel: 020 7387 3659;
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