While Tokyoites are generally the most cosmopolitan of Japanese, many will be reserved in the company of foreigners, particularly when called upon to speak English. Whereas almost everyone under 50 has some basic knowledge of English, very few are able to speak fluently.

Misunderstandings can easily occur, and the use of professional interpreters is advised. Foreigners are not expected to understand the complexities of Japanese etiquette, and allowances will be made cheerfully.

However, it is worth bearing in mind that shoes must be removed upon entering homes, as well as some offices and restaurants. Also, tips are never expected - the practice is considered vulgar, as is eating while walking. Blowing one's nose in public should also be avoided (it is, however, perfectly acceptable to sniff). Business clothes should be smart but conservative, with suits a must for both men and women.

For men, grey and navy are the favoured colours amongst the conservative business class. It is probably impossible to be over dressed in Japan and business visitors can expect to be judged by their appearance. Business cards are an essential part of introductions - no one can expect to be taken seriously without them.

Corporate entertaining is done mainly in restaurants and izakaya (drinking halls). Invitations to the homes of business associates are unusual. Drinking (beer, whisky and sake) is very much part of the culture, as is smoking. Corporate entertaining remains largely male dominated and business travellers' partners are rarely invited to such events.

For the most part, foreign businesswomen tend to be treated as one of the guys, and it is not unknown for them to be taken to strip clubs. Compared to the west, there are remarkably fewer Japanese businesswomen. Gifts are very important (they need not be particularly large or lavish) and are exchanged with great ceremony.

It is usual to refer to colleagues by their surnames and hierarchies should be respected. Business negotiations may require patience as directness is mistrusted and disliked, thus straight ‘yes' or ‘no' answers are generally avoided. Impatience is frowned upon, and confrontation is out of the question, as it is considered a sign of gross weakness. Apologies and thanks are very important and should not be rushed.

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