Borneo History, Language and Culture
History of Borneo
Borneo's history is shaped by its geography: a vast island of rivers, rainforest and coastal trading ports that long connected Southeast Asia with the wider world. For centuries, the island was home to numerous indigenous communities, including the Dayak peoples of the interior, who lived in longhouse settlements along rivers. Coastal areas developed into small trading states influenced by regional powers such as the Srivijaya and later the Majapahit empires, which helped spread trade networks, culture and religion across the region.
From the 15th century onward, Islam spread along Borneo's coasts through trade and regional influence, most notably through the Sultanate of Brunei, which at its height controlled large portions of the island’s northern coastline. European involvement began in the 16th century when Portuguese and Spanish traders arrived in regional waters, followed later by the British and Dutch, who gradually expanded their influence over different parts of the island.
By the 19th century, Borneo had become divided between colonial powers. The Dutch controlled the southern and central regions, known today as Kalimantan. In the north, the British established authority over what are now the states of Sabah and Sarawak. Sarawak was ruled by the so-called "White Rajahs", the Brooke family, while Sabah came under the administration of the British North Borneo Company. Brunei remained an independent sultanate but became a British protectorate.
During the Second World War, Japanese forces occupied the island, leaving lasting scars in several regions. After the war, political changes reshaped Borneo's future. Sarawak and Sabah joined the newly formed Federation of Malaysia in 1963, while Brunei chose to remain separate and later gained full independence in 1984. The former Dutch territories became part of independent Indonesia, forming the region now known as Kalimantan.
Today, Borneo is shared by three nations – Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei – each contributing to the island's rich cultural mosaic. Despite modern development, many indigenous traditions remain strong, and the island's rivers and forests continue to shape the lives of the communities that call Borneo home.
Did you know?
• From 1841 to 1946, Sarawak was ruled not by a colonial government but by a British family known as the "White Rajahs".
• Brunei was a powerful maritime empire during the 15th and 16th centuries, controlling much of the northern coast of Borneo and parts of the Philippines.
• Nusantara in East Kalimantan is one of the most ambitious capital relocation projects in modern history.
Borneo Culture
Religion in Borneo
Religion across Borneo varies widely, reflecting the island's diverse ethnic groups, historical trading links and differing national backgrounds under Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia.
Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak): Muslim (60%), Christian (30%), Buddhist (6%), Others (4%).
Brunei: Muslim (82%), Buddhist (7%), Christian (7%), Others (4%).
Indonesia (Kalimantan): Muslim (75%), Christian (20%), Buddhist (2%), Hindu (1%), Others (2%).
Social Conventions in Borneo
Social customs across Borneo reflect the cultural traditions of Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia, with politeness, respect and modest behaviour highly valued. Greetings are generally friendly but slightly formal at first meetings, often involving a handshake. In more conservative settings, particularly in Brunei, a slight nod or placing the hand over the heart after a handshake may be preferred. Dress is generally casual in cities and tourist areas, though modest clothing is advisable when visiting religious sites or rural communities.
Tipping is not widely expected across Borneo. In Malaysian Borneo and Indonesia, some restaurants and hotels include a service charge in the bill. If this is not the case, rounding up the bill or leaving a small tip is appreciated but not required. In Brunei, tipping is uncommon and generally not expected.
Photography is usually permitted in public places and tourist sites, but visitors should ask permission before photographing people, particularly in rural villages or traditional communities. Photography may be restricted inside religious buildings, government facilities or military sites. In Brunei, visitors should also be respectful when photographing mosques and religious activities.
Language in Borneo
Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak)
Malay (Bahasa Malaysia) is the official language of Malaysia and is widely spoken throughout Sabah and Sarawak. English is also commonly used, particularly in cities, tourism and business, making communication relatively easy for visitors. Chinese language (Mandarin) and dialect (Hakka) are widely spoken among the Chinese communities, while numerous indigenous languages are used by local ethnic groups across the region.
Brunei
Malay is the official language of Brunei, though the local dialect, Brunei Malay, is widely spoken in everyday conversation. English is also widely used in government, education and business, and most visitors will find it easy to communicate in English, particularly in the capital and tourist areas.
Indonesia (Kalimantan)
Bahasa Indonesia is the official language of Indonesia and is spoken throughout Kalimantan. English is used in tourism and in some business settings, particularly in larger cities, but it is less widely spoken than in Malaysian Borneo. In addition to Indonesian, many local ethnic groups use their own regional languages and dialects in daily life.